Is Japan a nation-state?
I still vividly remember in my introductory International Relations class, the lecturer was introducing the idea of the nation-state, a territorially bounded polity (the state) that is ruled in the name of a community of citizens who identify themselves as a nation. Japan was raised as a very typical example of it. Such a statement probably wouldn’t raise a lot of objection, as it is a commonly held idea that Japan is a nation that is bounded by common myths such as the emperor and the common Japanese language. ‘Homogenous’; ‘Hierarchy’ are words that are often used to describe Japan.
However, against the common myth, Japan has a surprisingly multicultural history. And here is the sometimes untold side of the story of Japan.
Ezo and the Ainu
The Ainu people are the indigenous population of Northern Japan (and parts of modern-day Russia), populating Hokkaido, Sakhalin and Kuril Islands.
It was in the 13th century, that the Ainu culture that we know today came into existence, emerging in the wake of external threats such as encountering the Japanese Honshu mainlanders and the Mongolians. It wasn’t until the Edo period (1603–1868), that the Japanese state expanded northward and officially claimed the territory of modern-day Hokkaido, (then named Ezo). It was during the Edo period when a significant number of Japanese settlers moved to the Southern part of Hokkaido and the Ainu-Japanese trade flourished. While it may sound like trading with the wealthier Japanese would bring prosperity to the Ainu, the colonial encounters between the Japanese and Ainu generated catastrophic effects for the Ainu. Unlike the Ainu, the Japanese treated Hokkaido as a piece of land to be exploited, as such overfishing and overhunting have largely depleted the natural resources of the island. Besides, gold mining on the island has also dealt significant harm to the small land of Hokkaido. Not only did these measures render the hunter-gatherer lifestyles of the Ainu impossible, but the Ainu became increasingly reliant on trade with the Japanese Honshu, creating a perfect condition for colonial control for the Japanese.
Ainu women were also forced by the Edo government to engage in interracial marriage with the Japanese, while the men were forced to ditch their original hunter-gathering lifestyle and adopt a ‘Japanese’ agricultural lifestyle, as a part of the Edo government’s civilizing mission. Not to mention the rampant rapes of Japanese men against Ainu women when there were drastic changes in the gender division of labor in the Ainu Kotans (villages). The oppression of the Japanese against the Ainu population is also reflected in how the Ainu were culturally represented in the Japanese arts. They are often represented as ‘close to nature’, strong, and hairy. The Ainus’ hunter-gatherer lifestyle was portrayed as inferior to the agricultural kingdom of Japan. These very ‘Orientalist’ paradigms of cultural representations further justified the subjugation of the Ainu population (such tropes are similar to those used by later Western empires to justify imperialism, see Edward Said’s Orientalism for more). However, as the Ainu lacked a proper written language system, most of the historical depictions of the Ainu were done by either Japanese or foreign Anthropologists. Thus, the above-mentioned problematic depiction of the Ainu has persisted through the ages and the authentic voices of the Ainu have been largely lost. During the Edo period, the Japanese also brought diseases to the Ainu, which largely reduced their population.
During the Meiji Restoration era (1868–1912), the Japanese Meiji government imposed mounting control upon the Ainu. The Meiji restoration period marked a period of rapid modernization and Westernization of Japan, where Western technology and culture were introduced into Japan to achieve the purpose of 富国強兵 (fukoku kyouhei), to both make the country economically prosperous and militarily powerful.
Thus, in a period of modernization, not only did the previous oppressive arrangements persisted, but the indigenous populations were hoped to be assimilated, and incorporated into the mass modernization mission of Japan. Therefore, the Ainu population was granted so-called education opportunities, however, the truth is that it is a systematic project to ‘Japanize’ the Ainu. And the Ainu were banned from speaking their indigenous language and performing their own cultures. Similarly, such forms of assimilation policies were later imposed upon the indigenous populations of Taiwan, a Japanese colony during the 19th and 20th century. It wasn’t until 2008, that the Japanese Parliament (the diet) unanimously passed the law that recognizes the Ainu people as the indigenous population of Japan, this is because Japan has long been proud of the homogeneity of the ethnicity of its population. However, as one of the most developed countries, Japan has no choice but to move on to scrutinize some hidden, brutal histories of
Here I would personally recommend a very good Manga/Anime that depicts life in an Ainu Kotan (Village) and the Ainu philosophy: ‘Golden Kamuy’
Ryukyu
The Ryukyu archipelago went under Japanese colonial control since the invasion of the Japanese Satsuma clan in 1609. Before that, the Ryukyu Kingdom was a Kingdom unified in 1429, ruled by the Sho family, and also was a Chinese tributary state. Historically speaking, the Ryukyuan had closer ties than the Japanese. After the 1609 occupation, in order to utilize the Kingdom’s close ties with China, the Satsuma leaders did not impose a transformative project in the initial stage of occupation. Scholars even argued that the Ryukyu culture was solidified under the political control of the Satsuma clan.
Things have slowly changed since the Meiji Restoration and the Sino-Japanese War. As Okinawa lost its significance as a middle-man between China and Japan. Instead, it was to be incorporated into a modernized imperial Japan. Not as resourceful as Hokkaido, Ryukyu suffered less from the economic exploitation of the mainland Japanese. However, we can still see traces of economic colonization of Japan towards the Ryukyuans, they include the huge reliance on cash crop production, relative poverty compared to other Japanese prefectures, and the widespread ownership of Japanese businessmen of Ryukyu businesses. Moreover, cultural assimilation policies were also imposed in order to both ‘Japanize’ and ‘modernize’ the Ryukyuans. Despite not as regarded as savages as the Ainu in Hokkaido (The Ainu were exhibited alongside indigenous Taiwanese in colonial exhibitions), Ryukyuan still felt discriminated against and treated as inferior and looked down upon by the Japanese in their everyday lives.
One could argue that the assimilation, or ‘Japanization’ of Okinawa or the Ryukyu archipelago was exceptionally successful. Most Ryukyu elites have long been found buying into the narrative and used Japanizing as a way of climbing up the social ladder. However, during the battle of Okinawa in the Second World War, Tokyo caused devastation for Okinawa, despite not being proved as a form of preferential treatment, but still a great part of the Ryukyu identity. On official papers, the tactics used by the imperial army during the battle of Okinawa were called the suteishi (the Sacrifice stone), where Okinawa was used to stop the US Army from invading the mainland at all costs. Not only were men forcefully enlisted in the army, but also there were records of forced recruitment of comfort women among the local populace. Ordinary citizens of Okinawa have suffered the most from the costly battle, and a lot of ancient Ryukyu Kingdom artifacts were razed down to the ground. These instances have made older generations of Ryukyuans until today, especially pacifist, but also created an instance of shared identity between the Ryukyuans.
The modern-day callings for an independent Ryukyu were further developed in the aftermath of the Second World War. Unlike the Japanese mainland, the occupation of the US army of the Okinawa archipelago went on until 1972. There had been protests that demanded the closing of the US military base in Ryukyu for long. Especially during the last decade when sporadic news of the US army raping local Japanese women was rampant. Many hoped that Okinawa’s return of sovereignty to Japan would eventually lead to the closure of the US military base, however, it has proved to be a mere hope. Until today, we still see the tensions between the Okinawan local government and the Tokyo government on the US military base. While the former demanded its closure and the latter defended that US military presence is of national security importance. Ryukyu independent movement has been an anti-US military presence movement, alongside a cultural campaign to enshrine the distinct culture of Ryukyu and an economic campaign hoping to solve endemic poverty on the island.
Nonetheless, the Ryukyu Kingdom and the cultural identity it used to have was one that was largely subsumed under the Japanese Nationalist project. And one that is an untold story of a deeper Japan.
Why is Japan a nation-state?
After outlining the multicultural history of Japan, then arises the other question: why was Japan long presented to us as a nation-state?
From Rome’s founding myth of Romulus and Remus, the twin brothers raised by wolves, to the idea of the ‘American dream’, that America is a nation built by self-entrepreneur European individuals making their way to a Laissez-faire piece of land. Founding myth is an integral part of the self-identities of cities and nations. This is also true for Japan, positioning itself as a proudly homogenous society. Thus the Japanese proudly present their royal family as 万世一系 (bansei iikei), of successfully maintaining their homogenous royal blood and lineage through thousands of years. Therefore under such a narrative, it is inevitable that the peripheral stories of the nation, such as the Ainu and the Ryukyuan have been repressed through the ages, and furthermore presented as brainless savages in Japanese mass media. History is written by the victor, and seldom does the victor voice for the powerless, or the assimilated. Thus we often see the indigenous populations, not only having their cultural practices stripped but also lacking their ability to make significant written works of themselves. It is these moments that reveal the limits of modern nationalism. While it claims to generate a state that represents the whole population, it fails to incorporate historical, or geographical multiplicity and differences in every demarcated boundary of states.
Another lesson that we can learn from Japan is that conservatives, especially American Conservatives, would reason their opposition to critical history studies as they would teach our kids ‘not to appreciate our culture and nation’. However, the case often turns out to be the exact opposite, if a nationalist project would lead to an inevitable concealing of certain facts and truths, then such a project could be nothing more than a project of untruth, ignorance, and cheap political tools. Such conservative narratives would rather have their kids grow up in ‘noble lies’, while frequently citing 1984-style dystopian stories calling for smaller governments and criticizing authoritarian states. Revealing the exclusionary basis of modern state narratives is not one that destroys modern civilization. Instead, It is one that betters it, one that entails a more inclusive society, one that mediates the antagonistic potential of the potentially brutal history of politics.
In the studies of political theories, nationalism is an idea that is closely related to democracy. The idea has long empowered the collective action of people, to overthrow despotic, absolute monarchs. For people to collectively decide their own fate in politically equal terms. However, liberal democracy has become the widespread norm, especially in developed countries. It is time now for us to review the political project of liberal democracy. Obviously, it is hard for any state to acknowledge the potential harm it has done in the progress of reaching prosperity. However, it is always important to bear in mind that such a revision project is not purposed to destroy democracy, rather it is a sacred mission, the final piece of puzzle of the democratic project.
References
Siddle, R. (1998). Colonialism and Identity in Okinawa before 1945. Japanese Studies, 18(2), 117–133.
